# Empirically testing the Chowla conjecture

Terry Tao’s most recent blog post looks at the Chowla conjecture theoretically. This post looks at the same conjecture empirically using Python. (Which is much easier!)

The Liouville function λ(n) is (-1)Ω(n) where Ω(n) is the number of prime factors of n counted with multiplicity. So, for example, Ω(9) = 2 because even though 9 has only one distinct prime factor, that factor counts twice.

Given some set of k strides h1, h2, …, hk, define

f(n) = λ(n + h1) λ(n + h1) … λ(n + hk).

The Chowla conjecture says that the average of the first N values of f(n) tends to zero as N goes to infinity. This has been proven for k = 1 but not for larger k.

If f(n) acts like a Bernoulli random variable, our experiments might increase our confidence in the conjecture, but they wouldn’t prove anything. Unexpected results wouldn’t prove anything either, but a departure from random behavior might help find a counterexample if the conjecture is false.

We’re going to be evaluating the Liouville function repeatedly at the same arguments, so it will save some compute time if we tabulate its values. This will also let us use some compact Python notation to average f. We’ll need to tabulate the function up to Nhk.

In the code below, maxstride is an upper bound on the strides hk we may look at. SymPy has a function primeomega that calculates Ω(n) so we might as well use it. If you wanted to use a very large value of N, you might want to fill the array of Liouville function values using a more direct approach that avoids all the factoring implicit in calls to primeomega.

    from sympy import primeomega
from numpy import empty

N = 10000
maxstride = 100

liouville = empty(N + maxstride)
liouville[0] = 1
for n in range(1, len(liouville)):
liouville[n] = (-1)**primeomega(n)


The following code looks at the Chowla conjecture for h1 = 0 and h2 ranging over 1, 2, …, 99.

    average = empty(maxstride-1)
for s in range(1, maxstride):
average[s-1] = (liouville[0:N] * liouville[s:N+s]).sum()/N


If the Liouville function is distributed like a random variable taking on -1 and 1 with equal probability, we’d expect the averages to vary like samples form a normal distribution with mean 0 and variance 1/(2N).

    print(average.mean())
print(average.std())
print( (2*N)**-0.5 )


This returns

    0.00141
0.00851
0.00707


and so the means are indeed near zero, and the standard deviation of the samples is about what we’d expect.

What if we replace Ω(n), the number of prime factors with multiplicity, with ω(n), the number of distinct prime factors? The averages above are still small, but the sample variance is about twice as big as before. I’ve seen this pattern with several different large values of N, so I suspect there’s something going on here.

(I didn’t see a function in SymPy corresponding to ω(n), but you can create your own with len(factorint(n)).

# Exponential sums make pretty pictures

Exponential sums are a specialized area of math that studies series with terms that are complex exponentials. Estimating such sums is delicate work. General estimation techniques are ham-fisted compared to what is possible with techniques specialized for these particular sums. Exponential sums are closely related to Fourier analysis and number theory.

Exponential sums also make pretty pictures. If you make a scatter plot of the sequence of partial sums you can get surprising shapes. This is related to the trickiness of estimating such sums: the partial sums don’t simply monotonically converge to a limit.

The exponential sum page at UNSW suggests playing around with polynomials with dates in the denominator. If we take that suggestion with today’s date, we get the curve below:

These are the partial sums of exp(2πi f(n)) where f(n) = n/10 + n²/7 + n³/17.

[Update: You can get an image each day for the current day’s date here.]

Here’s the code that produced the image.

    import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
from numpy import array, pi, exp, log

N = 12000
def f(n):
return n/10 + n**2/7 + n**3/17

z = array( [exp( 2*pi*1j*f(n) ) for n in range(3, N+3)] )
z = z.cumsum()

plt.plot(z.real, z.imag, color='#333399')
plt.axes().set_aspect(1)
plt.show()


If we use logarithms, we get interesting spirals. Here f(n) = log(n)4.1.

And we can mix polynomials with logarithms. Here f(n) = log(n) + n²/100.

In this last image, I reduced the number of points from 12,000 to 1200. With a large number of points the spiral nature dominates and you don’t see the swirls along the spiral as clearly.

# Pascal’s triangle and Fermat’s little theorem

I was listening to My Favorite Theorem when Jordan Ellenberg said something in passing about proving Fermat’s little theorem from Pascal’s triangle. I wasn’t familiar with that, and fortunately Evelyn Lamb wasn’t either and so she asked him to explain.

Fermat’s little theorem says that for any prime p, then for any integer a,

ap = a (mod p).

That is, ap and a have the same remainder when you divide by p. Jordan Ellenberg picked the special case of a = 2 as his favorite theorem for the purpose of the podcast. And it’s this special case that can be proved from Pascal’s triangle.

The pth row of Pascal’s triangle consists of the coefficients of (xy)p when expanded using the binomial theorem. By setting x = y = 1, you can see that the numbers in the row must add up to 2p. Also, all the numbers in the row are divisible by p except for the 1’s on each end. So the remainder when 2p is divided by p is 2.

It’s easy to observe that the numbers in the pth row, except for the ends, are divisible by p. For example, when p = 5, the numbers are 1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1. When p = 7, the numbers are 1, 7, 28, 35, 35, 28, 7, 1.

To prove this you have to show that the binomial coefficient C(p, k) is divisible by p when 0 < k < p. When you expand the binomial coefficient into factorials, you see that there’s a factor of p on top, and nothing can cancel it out because p is prime and the numbers in the denominator are less than p.

By the way, you can form an analogous proof for the general case of Fermat’s little theorem by expanding

(1 + 1 + 1 + … + 1)p

using the multinomial generalization of the binomial theorem.

# Predicting when an RNG will output a given value

A few days ago I wrote about how to pick the seed of a simple random number generator so that a desired output came n values later. The number n was fixed and we varied the seed. In this post, the seed will be fixed and we’ll solve for n. In other words, we ask when a pseudorandom sequence will produce a given value.

In principle you could just run the RNG until you get the output you’re looking for, but we’ll assume such a brute force approach is not feasible or at least not fast enough.

If a LCG (linear congruential generator) has seed z, multiplier a, and modulus m, then the nth output is an z reduced mod m. So our task is to solve

x = an z mod m

for n. If we forget for a moment that we’re working with integers mod m, we see that the solution is

n = loga (x / z)

We can actually make this work if we interpret division by z to mean multiplication by the inverse of z mod m and if we interpret the logarithm to be a discrete logarithm. For more on discrete logarithms and one algorithm for computing them, see this post.

In an earlier post I used  a = 742938285 and m = 231 – 1 = 2147483647. We set n = 100 and solved for z to make the 100th output equal to 20170816, the date of that post. It turned out that z = 1898888478.

Now let’s set the seed z = 1898888478 and ask when the LCG sequence will take on the value x = 20170816. Of course we know that n will turn out to be 100, but let’s pretend we don’t know that. We’ll write a little Python script to find n.

I expect there’s a simple way to compute modular inverses using SymPy, but I haven’t found it, so I used some code from StackOverflow.

The following code produces n = 100, as expected.

from sympy.ntheory import discrete_log

def egcd(a, b):
if a == 0:
return (b, 0, 1)
else:
g, y, x = egcd(b % a, a)
return (g, x - (b // a) * y, y)

def modinv(a, m):
g, x, y = egcd(a, m)
if g != 1:
raise Exception('modular inverse does not exist')
else:
return x % m

a = 742938285
z = 1898888478
m = 2**31 - 1
x = 20170816
zinv = modinv(z, m)

n = discrete_log(m, x*zinv, a)
print(n)


# Reverse engineering the seed of a linear congruential generator

The previous post gave an example of manipulating the seed of a random number generator to produce a desired result. This post will do something similar for a different generator.

A couple times I’ve used the following LCG (linear congruential random number generator) in examples. An LCG starts with an initial value of z and updates z at each step by multiplying by a constant a and taking the remainder by m. The particular LCG I’ve used has a = 742938285 and m = 231 – 1 = 2147483647.

(I used these parameters because they have maximum range, i.e. every positive integer less than m appears eventually, and because it was one of the LCGs recommended in an article years ago. That is, it’s very good as far as 32-bit LCGs go, which isn’t very far. An earlier post shows how it quickly fails the PractRand test suite.)

Let’s pick the seed so that the 100th output of the generator is today’s date in ISO form: 20170816.

We need to solve

a100z = 20170816 mod 2147483647.

By reducing  a100 mod 2147483647 we  find we need to solve

160159497 z = 20170816 mod 2147483647

and the solution is z = 1898888478. (See How to solve linear congruences.)

The following Python code verifies that the solution works.

    a = 742938285
z = 1898888478
m = 2**31 - 1

for _ in range(100):
z = a*z % m
print(z)


Update: In this post, I kept n = 100 fixed and solved for the seed to give a specified output n steps later. In a follow up post I do the opposite, fixing the seed and solving for n.

# Least common multiple of the first n positive integers

Here’s a surprising result: The least common multiple of the first n positive integers is approximately exp(n).

More precisely, let φ(n) equal the log of the least common multiple of the numbers 1, 2, …, n. There are theorems that give upper and lower bounds on how far φ(n) can be from n. We won’t prove or even state these bounds here. See [1] for that. Instead, we’ll show empirically that φ(n) is approximately n.

Here’s some Python code to plot φ(n) over n. The ratio jumps up sharply after the first few values of n. In the plot below, we chop off the first 20 values of n.

from scipy import arange, empty
from sympy.core.numbers import ilcm
from sympy import log
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

N = 5000
x = arange(N)
phi = empty(N)

M = 1
for n in range(1, N):
M = ilcm(n, M)
phi[n] = log(M)

a = 20
plt.plot(x[a:], phi[a:]/x[a:])
plt.xlabel("$n$")
plt.ylabel("$\phi(n) / n$")
plt.show()


Here’s the graph this produces.

[1] J. Barkley Rosser and Lowell Schoenfeld. Approximate formulas for some functions of prime numbers. Illinois Journal of Mathematics, Volume 6, Issue 1 (1962), 64-94. (On Project Euclid)

# Quicksort and prime numbers

The average number of operations needed for quicksort to sort a list of n items is approximately 10 times the nth prime number.

Here’s some data to illustrate this.

|------+-----------------+---------|
|    n | avg. operations | 10*p(n) |
|------+-----------------+---------|
|  100 |          5200.2 |    5410 |
|  200 |         12018.3 |   12230 |
|  300 |         19446.9 |   19870 |
|  400 |         27272.2 |   27410 |
|  500 |         35392.2 |   35710 |
|  600 |         43747.3 |   44090 |
|  700 |         52297.8 |   52790 |
|  800 |         61015.5 |   61330 |
|  900 |         69879.6 |   69970 |
| 1000 |         78873.5 |   79190 |
| 1100 |         87984.4 |   88310 |
| 1200 |         97201.4 |   97330 |
| 1300 |        106515.9 |  106570 |
| 1400 |        115920.2 |  116570 |
| 1500 |        125407.9 |  125530 |
| 1600 |        134973.5 |  134990 |
| 1700 |        144612.1 |  145190 |
| 1800 |        154319.4 |  154010 |
| 1900 |        164091.5 |  163810 |
| 2000 |        173925.1 |  173890 |
|------+-----------------+---------|


The maximum difference between the quicksort and prime columns is about 4%. In the latter half of the table, the maximum error is about 0.4%.

What’s going on here? Why should quicksort be related to prime numbers?!

The real mystery is the prime number theorem, not quicksort. The prime number theorem tells us that the nth prime number is approximately n log n. And the number of operations in an efficient sort is proportional to n log n. The latter is easier to see than the former.

A lot of algorithms have run time proportional to n log n: mergesort, heapsort, FFT (Fast Fourier Transform), etc. All these have run time approximately proportional to the nth prime.

Now for the fine print. What exactly is the average run time for quicksort? It’s easy to say it’s O(n log n), but getting more specific requires making assumptions. I used as the average number of operations 11.67 n log n – 1.74 n based on Knuth’s TAOCP, Volume 3. And why 10 times the nth prime and not 11.67? I chose 10 to make the example work better. For very large values on n, a larger coefficient would work better.

# Leading digits of powers of 2

The first digit of a power of 2 is a 1 more often than any other digit. Powers of 2 begin with 1 about 30% of the time. This is because powers of 2 follow Benford’s law. We’ll prove this below.

When is the first digit of 2n equal to k? When 2n is between k × 10p and (k+1) × 10p for some positive integer p. By taking logarithms base 10 we find that this is equivalent to the fractional part of n log102 being between log10 k and log10 (k + 1).

The map

x ↦ ( x + log10 2 ) mod 1

is ergodic. I wrote about irrational rotations a few weeks ago, and this is essentially the same thing. You could scale x by 2π and think of it as rotations on a circle instead of arithmetic mod 1 on an interval. The important thing is that log10 2 is irrational.

Repeatedly multiplying by 2 is corresponds to adding log10 2 on the log scale. So powers of two correspond to iterates of the map above, starting with x = 0. Birkhoff’s Ergodic Theorem tells us that the number of times iterates of this map fall in the interval [ab] equals b – a. So for k = 1, 2, 3, … 9, the proportion of powers of 2 start with k is equal to  log10 (k + 1) –  log10 (k) =  log10 ((k + 1) / k).

This is Benford’s law. In particular, the proportion of powers of 2 that begin with 1 is equal to  log10 (2) = 0.301.

Note that the only thing special about 2 is that log10 2 is irrational. Powers of 3 follow Benford’s law as well because log10 3 is also irrational. For what values of b do powers of b not follow Benford’s law? Those with log10 b rational, i.e. powers of 10. Obviously powers of 10 don’t follow Benford’s law because their first digit is always 1!

[Interpret the “!” above as factorial or exclamation as you wish.]

Let’s look at powers of 2 empirically to see Benford’s law in practice. Here’s a simple program to look at first digits of powers of 2.

count = [0]*10
N = 10000

def first_digit(n):
return int(str(n)[0])

for i in range(N):
n = first_digit( 2**i )
count[n] += 1

print(count)


Unfortunately this only works for moderate values of N. It ran in under a second with N set to 10,000 but for larger values of N it rapidly becomes impractical.

Here’s a much more efficient version that ran in about 2 seconds with N = 1,000,000.

from math import log10
N = 1000000
count = [0]*10

def first_digit_2_exp_e(e):
r = (log10(2.0)*e) % 1
for i in range(2, 11):
if r < log10(i):
return i-1
for i in range(N):
n = first_digit_2_exp_e( i )
count[n] += 1

print(count)


You could make it more efficient by caching the values of log10 rather than recomputing them. This brought the run time down to about 1.4 seconds. That’s a nice improvement, but nothing like the orders of magnitude improvement from changing algorithms.

Here are the results comparing the actual counts to the predictions of Benford’s law (rounded to the nearest integer).

|---------------+--------+-----------|
| Leading digit | Actual | Predicted |
|---------------+--------+-----------|
|             1 | 301030 |    301030 |
|             2 | 176093 |    176091 |
|             3 | 124937 |    124939 |
|             4 |  96911 |     96910 |
|             5 |  79182 |     79181 |
|             6 |  66947 |     66948 |
|             7 |  57990 |     57992 |
|             8 |  51154 |     51153 |
|             9 |  45756 |     45757 |
|---------------+--------+-----------|


The agreement is almost too good to believe, never off by more than 2.

Are the results correct? The inefficient version relied on integer arithmetic and so would be exact. The efficient version relies on floating point and so it’s conceivable that limits of precision caused a leading digit to be calculated incorrectly, but I doubt that happened. Floating point is precise to about 15 significant figures. We start with log10(2), multiply it by numbers up to 1,000,000 and take the fractional part. The result is good to around 9 significant figures, enough to correctly calculate which log digits the result falls between.

Update: See Andrew Dalke’s Python script in the comments. He shows a way to efficiently use integer arithmetic.

# Uniform distribution of powers mod 1

A few days ago I wrote about how powers of the golden ratio are nearly integers but powers of π are not. This post is similar but takes a little different perspective. Instead of looking at how close powers are to the nearest integers, we’ll look at how close they are to their floor, the largest integer below. Put another way, we’ll throw away the integer parts and look at the decimal parts.

First a theorem:

For almost all x > 1, the sequence (xn) for n = 1, 2, 3, … is u.d. mod 1. [1]

Here “almost all” is a technical term meaning that the set of x‘s for which the statement above does not hold has Lebesgue measure zero. The abbreviation “u.d.” stands for “uniformly distributed.” A sequence uniformly distributed mod 1 if the fractional parts of the sequence are distributed like uniform random variables.

Even though the statement holds for almost all x, it’s hard to prove for particular values of x. And it’s easy to find particular values of x for which the theorem does not hold.

From [1]:

… it is interesting to note that one does not know whether sequences such as (en), (πn), or even ((3/2)n) are u.d. mod 1 or not.

Obviously powers of integers are not u.d. mod 1 because their fractional parts are all 0. And we’ve shown before that powers of the golden ratio and powers of the plastic constant are near integers, i.e. their fractional parts cluster near 0 and 1.

The curious part about the quote above is that it’s not clear whether powers of 3/2 are uniformly distributed mod 1. I wouldn’t expect powers of any rational number to be u.d. mod 1. Either my intuition was wrong, or it’s right but hasn’t been proved, at least not when [1] was written.

The next post will look at powers of 3/2 mod 1 and whether they appear to be uniformly distributed.

* * *

[1] Kuipers and Niederreiter, Uniform Distribution of Sequences

# Plastic powers

Last week I wrote a blog post showing that powers of the golden ratio are nearly integers. Specifically, the distance from φn to the nearest integer decreases exponentially as n increases. Several people pointed out that the golden constant is a Pisot number, the general class of numbers whose powers are exponentially close to integers.

The so-called plastic constant P is another Pisot number, in fact the smallest Pisot number. P is the real root of x3x – 1 = 0.

Because P is a Pisot number, we know that its powers will be close to integers, just like powers of the golden ratio, but the way they approach integers is more interesting. The convergence is slower and less regular.

We will the first few powers of P, first looking at the distance to the nearest integer on a linear scale, then looking at the absolute value of the distance on a logarithmic scale.

As a reminder, here’s what the corresponding plots looked like for the golden ratio.

# Golden powers are nearly integers

This morning I was reading Terry Tao’s overview of the work of Yves Meyer and ran across this line:

The powers φ, φ2, φ3, … of the golden ratio lie unexpectedly close to integers: for instance, φ11 = 199.005… is unusually close to 199.

I’d never heard that before, so I wrote a little code to see just how close golden powers are to integers.

Here’s a plot of the difference between φn and the nearest integer:

(Note that if you want to try this yourself, you need extended precision. Otherwise you’ll get strange numerical artifacts once φn is too large to represent exactly.)

By contrast, if we make the analogous plot replacing φ with π we see that the distance to the nearest integer looks like a uniform random variable:

The distance from powers of φ to the nearest integer decreases so fast that cannot see it in the graph for moderate sized n, which suggests we plot the difference on the log scale. (In fact we plot the log of the absolute value of the difference since the difference could be negative and the log undefined.) Here’s what we get:

After an initial rise, the curve is apparently a straight line on a log scale, i.e. the absolute distance to the nearest integer decreases almost exactly exponentially.

Related posts:

# Inverse Fibonacci numbers

As with the previous post, this post is a spinoff of a blog post by Brian Hayes. He considers the problem of determining whether a number n is a Fibonacci number and links to a paper by Gessel that gives a very simple solution: A positive integer n is a Fibonacci number if and only if either 5n2 – 4 or 5n2 + 4 is a perfect square.

If we know n is a Fibonacci number, how can we tell which one it is? That is, if n = Fm, how can we find m?

For large m, Fm is approximately φm / √ 5 and the error decreases exponentially with m. By taking logs, we can solve for m and round the result to the nearest integer.

We can illustrate this with SymPy. First, let’s get a Fibonacci number.

      >>> from sympy import *
>>> F = fibonacci(100)
>>> F
354224848179261915075


Now let’s forget that we know F is a Fibonacci number and test whether it is one.

      >>> sqrt(5*F**2 - 4)
sqrt(627376215338105766356982006981782561278121)


Apparently 5F2 – 4 is not a perfect square. Now let’s try 5F2 + 4.

      >>> sqrt(5*F**2 + 4)
792070839848372253127


Bingo! Now that we know it’s a Fibonacci number, which one is it?

      >>> N((0.5*log(5) + log(F))/log(GoldenRatio), 10)
100.0000000


So F must be the 100th Fibonacci number.

It looks like our approximation gave an exact result, but if we ask for more precision we see that it did not.

      >>> N((0.5*log(5) + log(F))/log(GoldenRatio), 50)
99.999999999999999999999999999999999999999996687654


Related posts:

# Infinite primes via Fibonacci numbers

A well-known result about Fibonacci numbers says

gcd(Fm, Fn) = Fgcd(m, n)

In words, the greatest common divisor of the mth and nth Fibonacci numbers is the gth Fibonacci number where g is the greatest common divisor of m and n. You can find a proof here.

M. Wunderlich used this identity to create a short, clever proof that there are infinitely many primes.

Suppose on the contrary that there are only k prime numbers, and consider the set of Fibonacci numbers with prime indices: Fp1, Fp2, … Fpk. The Fibonacci theorem above tells us that these Fibonacci numbers are pairwise relatively prime: each pair has greatest common divisor F1 = 1.

Each of the Fibonacci numbers in our list must have only one prime factor. Why? Because we have assumed there are only k prime numbers, and no two of our Fibonacci numbers share a prime factor. But F19 = 4181 = 37*113. We’ve reached a contradiction, and so there must be infinitely many primes.

Source: M. Wunderlich, Another proof of the infinite primes theorem. American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 72, No. 3 (March 1965), p. 305.

Here are a couple more unusual proofs that there are infinitely many primes. The first uses a product of sines. The second is from Paul Erdős. It also gives a lower bound on π(N), the number of primes less than N.

# Three proofs that 2017 is prime

Aaron Meurer asked on Twitter whether there’s a proof that 2017 is prime that would fit into 140 characters.

sqrt(2017) < 45.
2017 not divisible by 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, or 43.
Ergo prime.

I’m not sure that’s what he had in mind. There’s some implied calculation (which I didn’t actually do), so it’s kinda cheating. It would be interesting if there were something special about 2017 that would allow a more transparent proof.

(Implicit in the proof above is the theorem that if a number has a prime factor, it has a prime factor less than it’s square root. If you multiply together numbers bigger than the square root of n, you get a product bigger than n.)

Then for fun I gave two more proofs that are more sophisticated but would require far too much work to actually carry out by hand.

The first uses Fermat’s little theorem:

For 0 < a < 2017, a2016 – 1 is divisible by 2017.
2017 is not one of the three Carmichael numbers < 2465.
Ergo prime.

Fermat’s little theorem says that if p is prime, then for any 0 < ap, ap – 1 – 1 is divisible by p. This is actually an efficient way to prove that a number is not prime. Find a number a such that the result doesn’t hold, and you’ve proved that p isn’t prime. For small numbers, the easiest way to show a number is not prime is to show its factors. But for very large numbers, such as those used in cryptography, it’s efficient to have a way to prove that a number has factors without having to actually produce those factors.

Unfortunately, Fermat’s little theorem gives a necessary condition for a number to be prime, but not a sufficient condition. It can appear to be prime for every witness (the bases a are called witnesses) and still not be a prime. The Carmichael numbers pass the Fermat primailty test without being prime. The first four are 561, 1105, 1729, and 2465.

For more on using Fermat’s little theorem to test for primality, see Probability that a number is prime.

2016! + 1 is divisible by 2017, and so by Wilson’s theorem 2017 is prime.

Unlike Fermat’s little theorem, Wilson’s theorem gives necessary and sufficient conditions for a number to be prime. A number n is prime if and only if (n-1)! + 1 is divisible by n. In theory you could use Wilson’s theorem to test whether a number is prime, but this would be horrendously inefficient. 2016! has 5,789 digits. (You can find out how many digits n! has without computing it using a trick described here.)

Despite its inefficiency, you can actually use Wilson’s theorem and SymPy to prove that 2017 is prime.

      >>> from sympy import factorial
>>> x = factorial(2016) + 1
>>> x % 2017
0


# A short, unusual proof that there are infinitely many primes

Sam Northshield [1] came up with the following clever proof that there are infinitely many primes.

Suppose there are only finitely many primes and let P be their product. Then

The original publication gives the calculation above with no explanation. Here’s a little commentary to explain the calculation.

Since prime numbers are greater than 1, sin(π/p) is positive for every prime. And a finite product of positive terms is positive. (An infinite product of positive terms could converge to zero.)

Since p is a factor of P, the arguments of sine in the second product differ from those in the first product by an integer multiple of 2π, so the corresponding terms in the two products are the same.

There must be some p that divides 1 + 2P, and that value of p contributes the sine of an integer multiple of π to the product, i.e. a zero. Since one of the terms in the product is zero, the product is zero. And since zero is not greater than zero, we have a contradiction.

* * *

[1] A One-Line Proof of the Inﬁnitude of Primes, The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 122, No. 5 (May 2015), p. 466